TE OTI RAKENA & DR. TESSA ROMANO | Decolonizing the Art Song Recital: The Challenges and Potential Benefits

Dr. Te Oti Rakena and Dr. Tessa Romano examine the art song genre within the colonial context of Aotearoa New Zealand, problematizing the dichotomy of “art music” and “folk,” and suggesting possible futures of the art song recital through the use of decolonizing methodologies.

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In an increasingly volatile world where marginalized communities are advocating for the decentralizing of institutional policies and ideologies that deliberately distance and exclude them and promote systemic racism, we declare our intent at the beginning of this article to place this discussion in a South Pacific nation: Aotearoa New Zealand, a country with a complicated colonial history of the British variety. In this article, we examine the art song genre within our colonial context and use a bicultural lens as a framework for our discussion that considers as entry points the Indigenous worldview and the conventions of the Western Musical Canon.

It is difficult to discuss art song and its place in colonial contexts without considering the binary of Western art music and the term folk. The linked and individual histories of these musicological categories have been discussed at length by scholars across many fields, justifying what it includes and what it excludes [1]. While the origin story of “folk” is a human construct related firstly to the oral traditions of Western Europe [2] and then used ethnographically to chart the music of “others” [3], the contribution of the folk traditions to the production of Western art music, particularly in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, is well documented [4]. More problematic still is the signifier of “world music,” which, as a blanket term, has been associated with any musics from Africa, Asia, America, Europe, and Australia, especially if produced by a minority group within these vast locations [5].

These terms, and the histories around them, are entangled with the anthropological strand of development connected to “the other” as “the primitive” [6]. The categories of Western art song, folk, and world music were constructed from criteria that distinguished a hierarchy of musics within the Western canon. The struggle for Indigenous musicians is that the discourse about the Other, as it is represented in the scholarly constructs of academics and the art objects of their composers, was often informally gathered and anecdotal, and reported either by sight-seeing travelers and/or marginally experienced musicians [7]. Many of these observations only achieved scholarly status because of the existing culture of classifying knowledge and the process of archiving this knowledge in the cultural and academic institutions of the West [8]. This enabled an unfortunate and misplaced belief and myth that these Western centers were the primary depositories of all legitimate knowledge [9].

As academics/performers, we are responsible for the stories we share about the communities we research and teach into [10]. Therefore, in colonial contexts, increasing public narratives that counter the dominant voices should be on all of our agendas. In order to honestly represent the multiplicity of worldviews, we need to be sure that the cultural lens we use to discuss these matters is appropriate and endorsed by all the contributing members of that population, but especially those that are marginalized, and in our case living with the ongoing impact of historical trauma. Indigenous communities would argue that it shows cultural humility and respect, and begins to rewrite a history that was inscribed by the colonial power. This article contributes to the increasing body of literature that contests the myth of the West as central archivist and arbiter of scholarly status and offers alternative perspectives around the function of art-song and the nature of the genre. We begin contesting this myth from its realization by a neo-settler of Aotearoa New Zealand.

A Settler’s Perspective: Part One (Dr. Tessa Romano)

In June of 2019, I moved to the country that was only known to me at the time as New Zealand. As many contemporary instances of settler colonialism begin, I moved for “career advancement” with the added benefit of an escape from the fraught politics of my home country: the United States of America. I come from a culture in which my parents encouraged a wandering spirit and seeking individual success. My American upbringing cloaked the colonial spirit in the phrase: “the world is your oyster.” In other words, growing up during a period of increasing globalization in which a culture of colonialism still exists, it felt easy to justify such a dramatic dislocation from place as long as there was something to run from and/or toward. As a Western classical singer, “foreign” languages (i.e. not English) and learning about other cultures (mostly European) seemed second nature to me. When I began my position as lecturer in “classical” voice at the University of Otago, I was hardly phased by the foreign-to-me, “secondary” name of the University written below the English in smaller, italic type: Te Whare Wānanga o Otāgo. Upon arrival, I was eager to collect “art songs” by “New Zealand composers” and to discover what this new country, new culture, and te reo Māori (the Māori language) had in store.

Initially, I was planning to collect music from Aotearoa New Zealand much like one turns up to the beach and finds visitors collecting shells or driftwood. As Cherryl Waerea-i-te-rangi Smith (Ngaāti Apa, Kahungunu, Te Aitanga a Hauiti) has written in “Cultures of Collecting,” we treat beaches and forests as if they are “supermarkets that have announced there is a sale where everything is going out the door free.” While music is never entirely devoid of its sense of place due to whichever language it may be composed in, in my experience thus far, art songs were, like the shells on the beach, up for grabs or fair game for whomever found them. I was planning to “honor” these “newly discovered” works by performing them, teaching them to my students, and sharing them with performer friends back in the United States.

In beginning to collect and discover the art song of Aotearoa New Zealand, much of what I studied complicated my preconceived notion of an “art song.” While my understanding of art music had already been expanding beyond works influenced by Western culture, I wondered whether works like “Naumai e te ao mārama” or “Te ao mārama” by Dame Gillian Karawe Whitehead (Ngāi Terangi) composed for voice and taonga pūoro (sound treasure) might qualify as art song outside of the context of Aotearoa New Zealand. While these two works distinctly fall within some definitions of art song, I have often noticed that works in indigenous languages using indigenous instruments are likely to be labelled as “world music” or “folk music,” which excludes them from the “art song” category [11] . Or, perhaps this was a confusion created by a lack of examples in my art song studies thus far. After all, these song examples are not orally transmitted and are in consistent musical notation, therefore falling outside of two “world music” and “folk music” qualifiers [12] .

Contextualizing the Definition of Art Song

Over the past few decades, the musical academy as a site of tension has become an important space for indigenous performers, composers, and scholars to critically write, speak, and research back against the historic process of “inquisitive and acquisitive strangers” [13] . In a nation that is committed to musicking back against conventions that enact, sustain, and benefit white power and privilege [14] , we are obliged to discuss this topic within our specific context, with the objective of ensuring it benefits not just the authors, but the communities we live in and serve.

Erick Neher opens his article “The Art Song Recital in Review” [15] with a stunningly blunt description of the classical song recital construct:

The traditional Art Song Recital is perhaps the most rigidly formalized and tightly structured of all the classical musical genres. A solo singer, accompanied by a piano, stands on a stage and traverses a set of songs in the classical idiom.

Neher goes on to claim the standard repertory for the contemporary vocal recital is “equally prescribed” and asks if this highly inflexible structure “preserves a tradition or stifles innovation, or both” [16] .

Willis Patterson notes “the most immediate problem in dealing with the musical genre ‘art song’ occurs in the lack of broad and consistent understanding of the term” [17] . He suggests that art song is a genre that uses text, selected or original, that is set to music by a composer working with original musical materials. He contrasts this with folk music, which he describes as the repertoire and traditions of communities that have developed from folk and cultural traditions developed anonymously and transmitted aurally, and thereby subject to modification [18] .

Hall et al. [19] define art song as a setting of a poem, typically for voice and piano, of a high aesthetic intent. This use of “high aesthetic” is immediately problematic. If we consider it through a critical axiological lens – in this case asking the questions: how do we value art, who decides the value of that art, and what value system is used to decide the worth of that art – then we bring to the fore issues that are central to the nature of aesthetics. Maria Golaszewska [20] suggests that “in order to define the nature of aesthetic values, we must investigate values as such.” She goes further, stating “values do not exist as entities but originate and persist in specific situations.” Therefore, we acknowledge that “aesthetic values refer to the world of man, who is culturally conditioned … but there is a wide margin here for individual interpretation of the world” [21] .

In considering the definitions of art song, it is also necessary to briefly outline the functions and purposes of song and vocal music historically. While the most ‘elitist’ (read: Western art) songs are performed today on the concert stage, this was not their original venue. German Lieder, art song’s most famous manifestation [22] , was originally composed for the home, and was to be enjoyed by the amateur music lover as an educational means by which one could develop poetic and musical appreciation [23] . Lieder was also a way to engage with the vernacular (the language or dialect spoken by the people belonging to a particular country, region, or place). Song has been used to entertain and distract [24] , as well as to create sympathy for a social cause, as in the American Civil Rights Movement [25] . Song is a way to orally pass along the history, cultural values, and spirituality of a people from one generation to the next [26]. Song has been a means by which two people with no common language have been able to communicate and create mutual understanding [27] . Song is used for ritual, and singing in itself can be a ritualistic act [28] . Singing and creating song is evidently quintessential to the human experience and carries deep significance in human cultures across the world. One form of song should therefore not be designated superior through musical terminology.

In the past, there have been issues with composers using cross-cultural references in the creation of art objects, practices that potentially reterritorialize colonized peoples through the cultural appropriation of their musical material [29] . However, when done with sensitivity, in collaboration, and with permission, including art song that works with traditional material and reimagines those traditions in a contemporary socio-political context, one can elegantly deterritorialize a recital program, avoiding appropriation or exoticism as “disguised colonialism” [30] . How the music of Indigenous peoples is acquired and presented is therefore of the utmost importance.

A Settler’s Perspective: Part Two

When collecting shells or driftwood, one operates under the false assumption that those objects are made more beautiful and useful through one’s possession of them. Many times I have returned from the beach with pieces of driftwood thinking that they would be far more appreciated as art objects on my shelves at home than sitting amongst the many on the beach, all the while ignorant that driftwood protects the coasts from erosion. Similarly, I assumed that my performing the songs that I collected and sharing them with others would only make them more beautiful, and their composers flattered and grateful. Through the dissemination of what I had found, the composer’s name would become more visible and exposed to a new musical market in which they might receive more commissions than they would have otherwise. Little did I know that even defining the composer of a work carries a complexity unacknowledged by Western education. Western intellectual property tradition generally assigns a single owner for a single, static intellectual output [31] . Similarly, as acknowledged above, art song has been defined as having a singular composer, whereas folk songs are developed anonymously, i.e. without a singular composer [32] . Therefore, having been raised in the United States and educated within Western institutions, it was my understanding that a vocal composition had one composer.

Conversely, in a culture in which collectivism is paramount, such as in Te ao Māori (the Māori worldview) [33] , it follows then that a song belongs to more people than the person through whose mouth or pen it might have first manifested. In this case, knowledge is communal and relational, and intellectual “property” is owned by the collective [34] . Therefore, if I were to seek permission to perform and share music in te reo Māori and/or attributed to a composer who is Māori, who was I to seek? In Ariana Tikao and Philip Brownlee’s work "Ko te tātai whetū” for instance, would I only ask permission from those two composers in order to perform it? Or even in a work such as “Te Kārohirohi: The Light Dances,” which is attributed to multiple composers of Māori descent – Louise Potiki Bryant and Te Ahukaramū Charles Royal – and includes improvisation by four musicians, would asking permission to perform this work from the two named composers and the original improvisers be enough?

Finally, this foundational question arose: what is the merit of trying to squeeze these songs into the art song category? And who benefits from the categorization of a work within the art song genre? To categorize within the art song genre a work in te reo Māori associated with a composer who is Māori (perhaps it may include taonga pūoro as well) is perhaps to legitimize that work from a colonialist perspective. However, that work then runs a high risk of becoming acquired and appropriated, or reappropriated. Thus, that work may fall victim to the colonial forces that a work like this might be composing back against. Is the integrity of a work worth sacrificing for its acknowledgement within a flawed and biased aesthetic value system [35] ? And if the art song genre were to advance and expand in order to become more inclusive, how does the advancement of a genre such as art song truly assist those works, artists, and communities that have previously been excluded?

My Pākehā (non-Māori) status acknowledged, I then wondered: are vocal works in te reo Māori and utilizing Māori traditional instruments mine to collect and share in the first instance? When I began my search, I did not yet have an idea of knowledge and song as sacred, as something not available for the taking even if easily accessible. Waiata or songs in te reo Māori and vocal compositions using taonga pūoro are Mātauranga Māori (Māori traditional knowledge) [36] . Who was I to share knowledge that did not originally belong to me? And even if I were to share it, who would ensure that performances outside of Aotearoa New Zealand would engage with kaupapa Māori (Māori approach/customary practice)?

In “Cultures of Collecting,” Cherryl Smith also writes:

When colonisers arrived in the faraway lands of their dreams, they worked hard, finding territories that were occupied by the native others, lands filled with wilderness and forest and teeming with untapped resources. They cleared and felled, toiling to transform landscapes into the memories of home…With colonisation, it was the pioneering spirit that encapsulated the dreams of advancement. With globalisation, it is the entrepreneurial spirit that encapsulates the dream of roaming the world and discovering untapped resources, of being able to achieve a sense of freedom through gathering and accumulating. (69-70)

When I arrived in Aotearoa New Zealand, I fell prey to the same colonial spirit that has laid claim to most of this Earth for the past three centuries; waiata and works in te reo Māori or attributed to composers who are Māori were untapped resources to me and I attempted to make sense of them by transforming them into my musical memories of home and comfort: art song.

Just as driftwood preserves beaches from erosion and does not need to be adapted for the settler home in order to be beautiful, the vocal works that I found had purpose enough in their original location and do not need to be categorized as art song in order to be considered of high value. However, through my investigation of vocal music in Aotearoa New Zealand and the quandary of its inclusion as art song, I had begun to learn about Mātauranga Māori, taonga pūoro, and te reo Māori; I had begun to use and acknowledge their importance personally and publicly. Perhaps I will not perform “Te ao mārama” or “Te Kārohirohi: The Light Dances” in the near future, but curiosity and struggling to categorize began a journey of learning and listening that I hope to continue.

Musical Discourse as a Force for Changing Public Narrative: An Indigenous Perspective (Dr. Te Oti Rakena)

To participate in the classical performance sector, from an indigenous perspective, is to be obsessed with the elevation of the arts practices and traditions of Western Europe, and therefore, in a deliberate way, contribute to the ongoing positional superiority of Western knowledge and culture. This results in some discomfort, some might say cognitive dissonance, for those of us of indigenous heritage and our allies who live in colonial contexts and contribute to the field of music education, music research, and music performance. Arguably, the cultural archive of these sectors is narrow in scope, by global standards, and limited in cultural responsiveness and yet, as already indicated, these are the conventions that often provide the measures that legitimize and value all music practices. 

In discussing the art song more fully as a genre in colonial contexts, my conversation begins where my last foray into historical musicology ended: my doctoral dissertation. Completed in 1998 at the University of Texas, Austin, the document synthesizes the non-Western and Western musical traditions in Aotearoa New Zealand as explored by composers, and whether composers of Aotearoa drew on Māori-sourced musical material and knowledge (Mātauranga Māori). The project involved interviewing composers, analysis of a range of New Zealand compositions, and two art-song commissions: one from a Māori composer and one from a New Zealand composer of European heritage.  

While musicking in the European style in Aotearoa New Zealand began well before 1840, this was the year Māori formally entered into a colonial relationship with the British Crown. New Zealand art song and art music compositions are most often traced back to the work of Alfred Hill, who was actually Australian [38] . In my project, I grouped compositions into three generations of composers that followed on from Alfred Hill. They were New Zealand-born but spent considerable time living and studying outside the country. The first was led by Douglas Lilburn, a student of Vaughn Williams in the 1930s. The second was a group that studied in London in the 1940s and 50s, influenced by Stravinsky and late-twentieth-century nationalism. The third generation dates from the 1960s and was the first generation to meaningfully explore cross-cultural material and consider music environmentally. This cosmopolitan group led the way for composers from the later twentieth century and early twenty-first century who, distanced from their colonial roots, have looked to the local for inspiration, have traveled less for study and professional development, and have placed their musical practices in a South Pacific context. As such, many of our current leading composers are truly homegrown and delight in exploring our cultural identity through new music.

At the time, I was an emerging researcher still firmly situated in the performance world. In rereading the document a few decades on, the value of this research is that it offers an indigenous Māori perspective on a Western genre and colonial musical history, perhaps the first, that can be used as a benchmark for comparison with the art song genre as it has developed in our context as we enter the third decade of the twenty-first century.

While Aotearoa New Zealand composers were initially obsessed with transporting English culture to Aotearoa, the composers in this project increasingly looked to the vibrancy of our unique cultures and the youthfulness of our nation. While non-Māori composers were unlikely to engage with Māori material for fear of appropriation, this was an area that was becoming more accessible. Many composers opted to explore other non-Western cultures [39] and not our indigenous soundscape, as they felt it was safer. They did acknowledge that we have a unique blend of cultures with Māori, Pākehā, and Pacific Island peoples co-existing, which offers a unique sound and visual world. The Māori composer, when asked about the lack of Māori-language compositions at this time, admitted it was for practical reasons. There were very few classical singers with the knowledge and capacity to sing in the language. There was no shortage of text or material, but with the resurgence of the language in the 1990s, she felt this could transform the field [40] .

I only briefly summarize some key points from that project because it is more important to discuss where we are now, and in order to do that, we have to understand how important this time frame is in our social-political history. I wrote the project in the United States during the mid-1990s. I had left the South Pacific in the mid-1980s – a crucial time in New Zealand’s history. In the last two decades of the twentieth century, we saw the fruition of strong indigenous activism begun in the 1970s and culminating in educated urban Māori fighting for self-sovereignty, the return of confiscated land, research in population health on the ongoing impact of historical trauma, and the creation of language immersion schools to revive the language, knowledge, and culture that had been suppressed for over 150 years. These activities were part of an attempt to ratify the Treaty of Waitangi, a document signed in 1840 defining a partnership between Māori and the British Crown and giving the Crown the right to govern and enact laws with the guarantee of Māori 'tino rangatiratanga' (full authority) over their 'taonga katoa' (all their treasured things) [41] .

Complementing these activities, over the last 50 years there have been ongoing reforms to the laws, policies, and practices relating to the Treaty of Waitangi. In addition, 20 years on from my dissertation, there is another generation of composers who have grown up with Māori musicians and academics who, through this time frame, began to write their own versions of our musical history and traditions: Māori who have knowledge of the culture, fluency in the language, and are committed to writing down the oral traditions and knowledge passed on by elders [42] . Māori researchers developed methodologies for engaging with Māori communities and Māori knowledge, and created bodies of literature around Māori ontology and epistemologies [43]. This has guided many of our non-Māori composers and performers to culturally safe practices for engaging with Māori.

All of this has removed some of the socio-political obstacles to a fully inclusive musicking experience and propelled our creative arts forward creating shared spaces for the exploration of new art music. This phenomenon has changed the landscape of song composition, introducing other types of music, reacquainting song with function, and diversifying the musical landscapes across all vocal genres in Aotearoa New Zealand.

Concluding Remarks and the Necessity for Further Discussion: Redefining Art Song

We began our narrative by acknowledging that a discussion of Aotearoa New Zealand art song literature and art music begins with the settlement by a colonial power in the nation of Aotearoa New Zealand. We then explored the development of the European art form entwined with other inherited creative arts practices. We then see a national awakening to place and cultural and physical distancing from Europe, which in turn begins a culture of new learning and a willingness to revive and sustain pre-colonial arts practices. With this has come an understanding and reception by non-indigenous composers of pre-colonial world views, value systems and epistemologies, and a rigorous understanding of how these transfer onto our contemporary society and inherited arts practices.

Aotearoa New Zealand is a relatively new nation by colonial standards but has a deep, rich pre-colonial history that draws on the non-Western traditions and concepts of the South Pacific. For the people that were here before colonization – Māori – the value of the arts can be better expressed as the advancement of Māori values through creative practices: art making that promotes interconnectedness, belonging, and an evolving Māori identity with an understanding that all these concepts align with Māori-defined measures of individual and collective wellbeing [44] .

Sitting alongside this value system, Aotearoa has a rich history of classical music making that evolved from the aesthetic values of Western Europe, transported to these islands through the settlers that were part of the colonial project [45] . Within the Aotearoa art song genre, there are some unique strands of development that share traits with other colonial nations who have, through their arts practices, distanced themselves from the languages (musical and linguistic) of Europe and built a distinct repertoire that reflects place and represents the voices and cultures that have lived on that land prior to and since colonization [46] .

In order to encourage and assist the larger Western classical music community in taking a similar journey in dislodging from limited, colonialist aesthetic conceptions, it is time to rewrite the definition of art song and/or create a term that embraces vocal music collectively. It is time to program more non-Western song. Musical material from communities and traditions outside of the conventional practices of classical music – the folk –, when sourced and used appropriately, can greatly enhance the programming of recitals, and art song repertoire. Bohlman states that “Classical music is essentially an intellectual music and folk music furnishes a lot of information of sociological value” [47] . Inclusion of non-Western music in the category art music, and by extension art song, helps us understand the diversity of aesthetic and cultural meanings music can offer, which broadens the field. It offers different ways of thinking about music and culture, and different ways of conceptualizing music. The political changes in many non-Western societies, including colonized countries like Aotearoa New Zealand, provide a productive artistic space for formally disenfranchised peoples to contribute to nation building and self-empowerment by creating art objects that emerge from the languages, values, and epistemologies of indigenous peoples. In this way, we consider art song as a broadening field that has the capacity to extend the conventions of the canon by including and meeting the expectations of not only the intellectuals, but much in the same way as new composition functions: by challenging the conceptions and expectations of the contemporary audience with new knowing.

In considering a new definition of art song, we offer this definition from Neher [48] : “where poetry and music meet and become more than the sum of their parts.” From an indigenous perspective, this expression of the genre is emancipatory in its succinctness, and, at the same time, it liberates the form in its expansiveness and potentiality.

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Notes

1. Philip Bohlman, The Study of Folk Music in the Modern World, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988; Matthew Gelbart, The Invention of “Folk Music” and “Art Music”: Emerging Categories from Ossian to Wagner, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007. ↩
2. Gelbart, 2007. ↩
3. Bohlman, 1988. ↩
4. Gelbart, 2007; Bohlman, 1988. ↩
5. J. Connell and C. Gibson, "World Music: Deterritorializing Place and Identity," Progress in Human Geography, 2004. ↩
6. Gelbart, 2007.↩
7. ibid. ↩
8. R. Bishop and T. Glynn, Culture Counts: Changing Power Relations in Education, Zed Books, 2003. ↩
9. C. Smith, Waerea-i-te-rangi. “Cultures of Collecting,” Resistance: An Indigenous Response to Neoliberalism, 2007. ↩
10. Bishop & Glynn, 2003. ↩
11. J. Valla et al, “Music and Emotion - A Case for North Indian Classical Music,” Frontiers in Psychology 8, 2017. ↩
12. Panteli, 2017. ↩
13. L. T. Smith, Decolonizing methodologies: Research and indigenous peoples, Zed Books Ltd, 2013. ↩
14. E. Mackinlay, Decolonization and applied ethnomusicology. In The Oxford handbook of applied ethnomusicology, Oxford University Press, 2015. ↩
15. E. Neher, The Art Song Recital in Review, The Hudson Review, 2011, 64(2), 325-330. ↩
16. ibid. ↩
17. W. Patterson, The African-American Art Song: A Musical Means for Special Teaching and Learning, Black Music Research Journal, 1996.↩
18. ibid. ↩
19. F. Hall et al, Art Song, Canadian Encyclopedia, Canadian Encyclopedia, 2019. ↩
20. M. Golaszewska, Artistic and aesthetic values in the axiological situation, Philosophica, 36(2), 1985. ↩
21. ibid. ↩
22. Johnson, 2000. ↩
23. Hamilton, 2020; Tunbridge, 2020 ↩
24. Smith, 2017 ↩
25. Woodard, P., “Singing Up to Freedom Land: Hymns, Spirituals, and Gospel Songs in the Civil Rights Movement," The Hymn 67(2), 2016. ↩
26. V. Smith, V. “Whaia te maramatanga: The Search for Enlightenment,” Searches for Tradition: Essays on New Zealand Music, Past & Present, Wellington: Victoria University Press, 2017; B. Burton, B. & P. Dunbar-Hall, “Teaching about and through Native American musics: An excursion into the cultural politics of music education,” Research Studies in Music Education 19(1), 2002. ↩
27. M. Willyams, “Singing Faith: A History of the Waiata Maori Choir, 1924-1938,” Masters Thesis, University of Otago, 2012.↩
28. Woodard, 2016; Burton & Dunbar-Hall, 2002. ↩
29. B. Heile, The Modernist Legacy: Essays on New Music, Ashgate, 2009. ↩
30. Boulez, P., Existe-il un conflit entre la pensée européenne et non-européenne? Europäische Musik, 137, 1984.↩
31. Budde-Sung, A., “The Invisible Meets the Intangible: Culture’s Impact on Intellectual Property Protection,” Journal of Business Ethics 117(2), 2013.↩
32. Patterson, 1996↩
33. J. Haar, J. & Brougham, D., “Collectivism, Cultural Identity and Employee Mental Health: A Study of New Zealand Maori,” Social Indicators Research 114(3), 2013. ↩
34. Lai; Budde-Sung, 2013↩
35. Golaszewska, 1985↩
36. 36-Stewart, 2020; Smith, 2017↩
37. C. Smith, 2007. ↩
38. G. Seaman, A question of identity: Musical composition in New Zealand, History of European Ideas, 16(4-6), 1993. ↩
39. J. Body, The New Zealand Musical Identity, Canzona 3, 1981. ↩
40. T. P. Rakena, 1999. ↩
41. Ministry of Justice Tāhū o te Ture, n.d.). ↩
42. H. Aperahama, “Māori Music 2000-2005.” State of the Māori Nation: Twenty-first-century Issues in Aotearoa. Auckland: Reed, 2006; R. T. Ā., Ka'ai-Mahuta, “He kupu tuku iho mō tēnei reanga: A critical analysis of waiata and haka as commentaries and archives of Māori political history,” Doctoral Dissertation, Auckland University of Technology, 2010; L. Pihama et al, Creating methodological space: A literature review of Kaupapa Māori research, Canadian Journal of Native Education, 26(1), 2002; T. R. Papesch, Creating a modern Māori identity through Kapa Haka (Unpublished Doctoral dissertation), University of Canterbury, 2015; M. Haami,“He Whiringa Muka: The Whanganui river, Rānana Marae and waiata,” 2020.↩
43. Pihama et al. 2002; Smith, 2013 ↩
44. L. Pihama et al. Nga Hua a Tane Rore: the benefits of Kapa Haka, Scoping Report for Te Manatu Toanga and Te Matatini, Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry for Culture and Heritage, 2014; Cram, 2014, Durie 2017, Te Puni Kōkiri Ministry of Māori Development, 2019 ↩
45. Watson, 2016 ↩
46. Forbay, 2011; Porter, 2016; Igarashi, 2012 ↩
47. Bohlman, 1988. ↩
48. Neher, 2011. ↩

References

• Aperahama, H. (2006).  “Māori Music 2000-2005.” State of the Māori Nation: Twenty-first-century Issues in Aotearoa. Auckland: Reed.

• Biasiny-Tule, P. (2006). “Rangatahi in the twenty-first century: a new century, a Māori millennium.” State of the Māori Nation: Twenty-first-century Issues in Aotearoa. Auckland: Reed. 

• Bishop, R., & Glynn, T. (2003). Culture counts: Changing power relations in education. Zed Books.

• Body, J. (1981). The New Zealand Musical Identity. Canzona 3, 18-26.

• Bohlman, P. V. (1988). The study of folk music in the modern world. Indiana University Press.

• Boulez, P. (1984) Existe-il un conflit entre la pensée européenne et non-européenne? Europäische Musik, 137, 129-45.

• Budde-Sung, A. (2013). “The Invisible Meets the Intangible: Culture’s Impact on Intellectual Property Protection.” Journal of Business Ethics 117:2, 345-359.

• Burton, B., & Dunbar-Hall, P. (2002). “Teaching about and through Native American musics: An excursion into the cultural politics of music education.” Research Studies in Music Education 19:1, 56-64. 

• Connell, J. & Gibson, C. (2004-06). “World Music: Deterritorializing Place and Identity.” Progress in Human Geography 28:3, 342-361. 

• Cram, F. (2014). Measuring Māori wellbeing. MAI Journal 3:1, 18-32.

• Durie, M. (2017). Kaupapa Māori: Indigenising New Zealand. In T.K. Hoskins and A. Jones. (Eds.), Critical Conversations in Kaupapa Māori. Wellington: Huia Publishers.

• Forbay, B. M. (2011). Afrikaans Art Song: A Stylistic Study and Performance Guide. University of Cincinnati.

• Gelbart, M. (2007). The invention of folk music and art music: Emerging Categories from Ossian to Wagner. Cambridge University Press.

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September 15, 2021